Maurice’s Strategikon

“Maurice’s Strategikon” was written in the late 6th century by, most likely, Byzantine Emperor Maurice (Emperor 582-602).  It contains wonderful descriptions of the Slavs at war (or, rather, Byzantines at war with Slavs) as well Slavs more generally that have been frequently cited as some of the earliest descriptions of Slav military tactics (or lack thereof).  We thought it only fair to include it here.  As a point of reminder, the Slavs here are the Slavs of Procopius who showed up on Byzantine doorstep at the beginning of the 6th century (consistent with Procopius’ description, the writer here too provides a rather measured description of the Slavs).  The translation comes from George T. Dennis – the latest English translation in existence that we’re aware of.  References to Slavs come in Book IX and, more extensively, in Book XI.

Book IX

Surprise Attacks

Chapter 3: Incursion Into Hostile Territory; Security While on the March in It; Plundering It Without Suffering Damage

“One can safely attempt an incursion into hostile territory under two conditions: if the assault is made after the enemy has been defeated in battle or if we know that they are unprepared or unfit for action should they be attacked without warning.  This is true even if the enemy forces are more numerous, and certainly if they are undisciplined disorganized, such as the Slavs, Antes, and other undisciplined, disorganized peoples.  Or our men can seize and hold a position, such as a riverbank or mountain pass, from which they can hurt the enemy without being touched by them…”

Book XI

Characteristics and Tactics of Various Peoples

[Note: This latter book discusses tactics for dealing with various peoples (as the title suggests).  As a point of interest we include some nice generalities of Maurice’s (not the entire chapters).  First, comes a description of the Persians, then the Scythians, then the Franks, Lombards and other “Light-Haired” people and, finally, the longest section – on the Slavs.]

Chapter 1: Dealing with the Persians

“The Persian nation is wicked, dissembling, and servile, but at the same time patriotic and obedient.  The Persians obey their rulers out of fear, and the result is that they re steadfast in enduring hard work and warfare on behalf of their fatherland…”

Chapter 2: Dealing with the Scythians, That is, Avars, Turks, and Others Whose Way of Life Resembles That of the Hunnish Peoples

“These nations have a monarchical form of government, and their rulers subject them to cruel punishments for their mistakes.  Governed not by love but by fear, they steadfastly bear labors and hardships.  They endure heat and cold, and the want of many necessities, since they are nomadic peoples.  They are very superstitious, treacherous, foul, faithless, possessed by an insatiate desire for riches… They give special attention to training in archery on horseback.  A vast herd of male and female horses follows them, both to provide nourishment and to give the impression of a huge army.  They do not encamp within entrenchments, as do the Persians and the Romans [Byzantines], but until the day of battle, spread about according to tribes and clans, they continuously graze their horses both summer and winter…  Also in the event of battle, when opposed by an infantry force in close formation they stay on their horses and do not dismount, for they do not last long fighting on foot.  They have been brought up on horseback, and owing to their lack of exercise they simply cannot walk about on their own feet…”

Chapter 3: Dealing with the Light-Haired Peoples, Such As the Franks, Lombards, and Others Like Them 

“The light-haired races place great value on freedom.  They are bold and undaunted in battle.  Daring and imperious as they are, they consider anuy timidity and even a short retreat as a disgrace.  They calmly despise death as they fight voliently in hand-to-hand combat either on horseback or on foot… Whether on foot or on horseback, they draw up for battle, not in any fixed measure and formation, or in regiments or divisions, but according to tribes, their kinship with one another, and common interest…  Either on horseback or on foot they are impetuous and undisciplined in charging, as if they were the only people in the world who are not cowards.  They are disobedient to their leaders.  They are not interest in anything that is at all complicated and pay little attention to external security and their own advantage.  They despise good order, especially on horseback.  They are easily corrupted by money, greedy as they are. “

“They are hurt by suffering and fatigue.  Although they possess bold and daring spirits, their bodes are pampered and soft, and they rnot able to bear pain calmly.  In addition they are hurt by heat, cold, rain, lack of provisions, especially wine, and postponement of battle.  They are easily ambushed along the flanks and ot the rear of their battle line, for they do not concern themselves at all with scouts and the other security measures.  Their ranks are easily broken by a simulated flight and a sudden turning back against them.  Attacks at night by archers often inflict damage, since they are very disorganized in setting up camp…”

Chapter 4: Dealing with the Slavs, the Antes, and the Like

“The nations of the Slavs and the Antes live in the same way and have the same customs.  They are both independent, absolutely refusing to be enslaved or governed, least of all in their own land.  They are populous and hardy, bearing readily heat, cold, rain, nakedness, and scarcity of provisions.”

“They are kind and hospitable to travelers in their country and conduct them safely from one place to another, wherever they wish.”

“If the stranger should suffer some harm because of his host’s negligence, the one who first commended him will wage war against that host, regarding vengeance for the stranger as a religious duty  They do not keep those who are in captivity among them in perpetual slavery, as do other nations.  But they set a definite period of time for them and then give them the choice either, if they so desire, to return to their own homes with a small recompense or to remain there as free men and friends.”

“They possess an abundance of all sorts of livestock and produce, which they store in heaps especially common millet and Italian millet.  Their women are more sensitive than any others in the world.  When , for example, their husband dies, many look upon it as their own death and freely smother themselves, not wanting to continue their lives as widows.”

“They live among nearly impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and marshes, and have made the exits from their settlements branch outing many directions because of the dangers they might face.  They bury their most valuable possessions in secret places, keeping nothing unnecessary in sight  They live like bandits and love to carry out attacks against their enemies in densely wooded narrow, and steep places. They make effective use of ambushes, sudden attacks, and raids, devising many different methods by night and by day.”

“Their experience in crossing rivers surpasses that of all other men, and they are extremely good at spending a lot of time in the water. Often enough when they are in their own country and are caught by surprise and in a tight spot, they dive to the bottom of a body of water. There they take long, hollow reeds they have prepared for such a situation and hold them in their mouths, the reeds extending to the surface of the water. Lying on their backs on the bottom they breathe through them and hold out for many hours without anyone suspecting where they are. An inexperienced person who notices the reeds from above would simply think they were growing there in the water. But a person who has had some experience with this trick, recognizing the reeds by the way they are cut or their position, either shoves them down further into their mouths or pulls them out, which brings the men to the surface, since they cannot remain under water any longer without them.”

“They are armed with short javelins, two to each man. Some also have nice-looking but unwieldy shields.”

“In addition, they use wooden bows with short arrows smeared with a poisonous drug which is very effective. If the wounded man has not drunk an antidote beforehand to check the poison or made use of other remedies which experienced doctors might know about, he should immediately cut around the wound to keep the poison from spreading to the rest of the body.”

“Owing to their lack of government and their ill feeling toward one another, they are no acquainted with an order of battle. They are also not prepared to fight a battle standing inclose order, or to present themselves on open and level ground. If they do get up enoughcourage when the time comes to attack, they shout all together and move forward a shortdistance. If their opponents begin to give way at the noise, they attack violently; if not, theythemselves turn around, not being anxious to experience the strength of the enemy at close range. They then run for the woods, where they have a great advantage because of their skill in fighting in such cramped quarters. Often too when they are carrying booty they will abandon it in a feigned panic and run for the woods.”

“When their assailants disperse after the plunder, they calmly come back and cause them injury. They are ready to do this sort of thing to bait their adversaries eagerly and in a variety of ways. They are completely faithless and have no regard for treaties, which they agree to more out of fear than by gifts. When a difference of opinion prevails among them, either they come to no agreement at all or when some of them do come to an agreement, the others quickly go against what was decided. They are always at odds with each other, and nobody is willing to yield to another. In combat they are hurt by volleys of arrows, sudden attacks launched against them from different directions, hand-to-hand fighting with infantry, especially light-armed troops, and having to fight on open and unobstructed ground.”

“Our army, therefore, should comprise both cavalry and infantry, especially light-armed troops or javelin throwers, and should carry a large amount of missiles, not only arrows, but also other throwing weapons. Bring materials for building bridges, the kind called floating, if possible. In this way you may cross without effort the numerous and unfordable rivers in their country. Build them in Scythian manner, some men erecting the framework, others laying down the planks. You should also have oxhide or goatskin bags to make rafts, and for use in helping the soldiers swim across for surprise attacks against the enemy in the summer.  Still, it is preferable to launch our attacks against them in the winter when they cannot easily hide among the bare trees, when the tracks of fugitives can be discerned in the snow, when their household is miserable from exposure, and when it is easy to cross over the rivers on the ice.”

“Most of the animals and superfluous equipment should be left behind in a very safe place with a suitable guard and officer in charge. The dromons should be anchored at strategic locations. A moira of cavalry under outstanding officers should be stationed in the area as a protection so that the army on the march shall not be distracted in the event of hostile ambushes, and also to spread rumors that an attack against the enemy is being planned in some other location. By means of such a rumor and the anxiety of their chiefs, each of whom will be worried about his own problems, they will not have the opportunity to get together and cause trouble for our army. Do not station these troops close to the Danube, for the enemy would find out how few they are and consider them unimportant. Nor should they be very far away, so their will be no delay, if it becomes necessary, to have them join the invading army. They should stay about a day’s march from the Danube. This army should cross over into enemy territory suddenly and make its invasion on clear and level ground.  Immediately a competent officer should ride ahead with some picked men to take captives from whom it will be possible to get information about the enemy. As far as possible, avoid marching through rough or wooded terrain during summer until thorough reconnaissance has been made, and, in case the enemy is present in force, until they have been driven away by our infantry or cavalry. If we have to march through a narrow pass, and if we expect to return by the same route, measures must be taken, as explained in the book dealing with this matter, to clear the way, widen the road, or to leave a relatively strong force behind in the area to prevent the enemy from hiding and making surprise attacks which could overwhelm our army on its return when it is likely to be encumbered with plunder.”

“As much as possible, avoid making camp in thickly wooded areas or pitching your tents near such places. For they can easily serve as a base for launching attacks or for rustling horses. The infantry force should encamp in order and within the fortification. The cavalry should encamp outside, with sentinels posted in a wide circle around the grazing horses, unless it is possible to bring in forage for the horses, so they can stay inside day and night.  If an opportunity for battle occurs, do not make your battle line against them too deep. Do not concentrate only on frontal attacks, but on the other sectors as well. Suppose that the enemy occupy a fairly strong position and have their rear well covered so that they do not allow us an opportunity to encircle them or to attack their flanks or their rear. In that event it is necessary to post some troops in concealment, have others simulate a flight before their front, so that, lured by the hope of pursuit, they may abandon their good defensive position, and then our men will turn back against them, while those in hiding come out and attack them.”

“Since there are many kings among them always at odds with one another, it is not difficult to win over some of them by persuasion or by gifts, especially those in areas closer to the border, and then to attack the others, so that their common hostility will not make them united or bring them together under one ruler. The so-called refugees who are ordered to point out the roads and furnish certain information must be very closely watched.  Even some Romans have given in to the times, forget their own people, and prefer to gain the good will of the enemy. Those who remain loyal ought to be rewarded, and the evildoers punished.”

“Provisions found in the surrounding countryside should not simply be wasted, but use pack animals and boats to transport them to our own country. The rivers there flow into the Danube, which makes transportation by boat easy.  Infantry are necessary not only in narrow passes and fortified places, but also in rough country and along rivers. Even in the face of the enemy it is then possible to bridge over them. When a small force of infantry, both heavy and light, has been secretly brought across at nipht or during the day and immediately drawn up in formation, keeping their backs to the river, they provide enough security to put a bridge across the river. In cramped river crossings or in defiles it is necessary for the rear guard to be ready for action at all times, disposed according to the terrain. For one may expect attacks to occur whenever the force is divided, and the troops who are advancing cannot aid those in the rear. Surprise attacks against the enemy should be carried out according to standard procedure. One detachment approaches their front and provokes them, while another detachment, infantry or cavalry, is posted secretly in the rear on the route by which they are expected to flee. The enemy then who avoided action or who flee from the first attacking force will unexpectedly run right into the other detachment. In summer there must be no letup in hurting them. During that time of year we can pillage the more open and bare areas and aim at entrenching ourselves in their land. This will aid the Romans who are captives among them to gain their freedom, after escaping from them. The thick foliage of summer makes it fairly easy for prisoners to escape without fear.”

“The procedures of the march, the invasion, and the pillaging of the country, and other more or less related matters, are dealt with in the book on invading hostile territory. Here the subject will be summarized as best as possible. The settlements of the Slavs and Antes lie in a row along the rivers very close to one another. In fact, there is practically no space between them, and they are bordered by forests, swamps, beds of reeds. As a result, what generally happens to invasions launched against them is that the whole army comes to a halt at their first settlement and is kept busy there, while the rest of the neighboring settlements, on learning of the invasion, easily escape with their belongings to the nearby forests. Their fighting men then come back ready for action, seize their opportunities, and attack our soldiers from cover. This prevents the invading troops from inflicting any damage on the enemy. For these reasons we must make surprise attacks against them, particularly in unexpected places. The bandons or tagmas must be so arranged beforehand that they know which one is first, which second, which third, and they should march in that order through very constricted areas, so they do not get mixed up and lose time in reorganizing themselves. When a crossing has been made without detection, if there are two suitable places which can be attacked, the army ought to be divided in two, with the lieutenant general taking one part, ready for battle and without a baggage train, and advance a distance of fifteen to twenty miles through unsettled land on their flanks with a view to launching an attack from the more mountainous areas. Then on approaching the settlements there, he should begin the pillaging, continuing until he meets the units with the general. The general, keeping the other part of the army, should invade and pillage from the other end of the settlements. Both should be advancing, destroying, and pillaging the settlements between them until they meet up with one another in a determined place. On arriving there they should pitch camp together toward evening. In this way the attack is successfully carried out.  The enemy running away from one detachment will unexpectedly fall right into the hands of the other, and they will not be able to regroup.  If there is only one suitable road by which it is possible to invade the settlements, the army should still be divided. The lieutenant general must take half or even more of it, a strong force and ready for battle, without a baggage train. His own bandon, with himself in his proper place, should advance at the head of the whole force, and accompanying him should be all the tagma commanders. When his force approaches the first settlement, he should detach one or two bandons so, while some go about pillaging, others may keep guard over them. It is wise not to detach too many bandons for the first settlements, even if they happen to be large ones. For when our army arrives, there is no time for the inhabitants to organize any resistance. The lieutenant general should continue his advance rapidly, while still carrying out the same procedure at the rest of the settlements along the way as long as there are enough tagmas under his command. The lieutenant general himself ought to stay clear of all these actions. He should retain for himself three or four bandons, up to a thousand capable men, until the invasion is completely finished, so he can see to reconnaissance and security for the rest of the troops.”

“While the lieutenant general is discharging these duties, the general should follow along, have the pillaging troops join him, and keep moving up toward the lieutenant general. For his part, the lieutenant general should turn back and gather up the pillagers along his line of march. In the place where the two encounter each other they should set up camp together that same day. These surprise incursions made by the two units should not advance more than fifteen or twenty miles, so that both may get there, do their pillaging, and pitch camp on the same day. In these expeditions those of the enemy able to put up resistance need not be taken alive, but kill everyone you encounter and move on. When you are marching along do not let them delay you, but take advantage of the opportunity.”

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